State of the economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

State of the economy - Essay Example Approached within the paper will be the global macroeconomic issues surrounding Gross Domestic Product, unemployment, inflation and interest rates. Specific geographical areas of interest are the United States, Brazil, Germany and Japan. The current global economic outlook is important to understand when looking to expansion of current a current business. Currently the in the United States, â€Å"Current-dollar GDP -- the market value of the nation's output of goods and services – increased 3.5 percent, or $126.3 billion, in the fourth quarter to a level of $14,871.4 billion. In the third quarter, current-dollar GDP increased 4.6 percent, or $166.4 billion.† (Gross national product, 2011)The rate of unemployment currently in the United States has increased to a reported 9.2% in March of 2011 which is substantially higher than prior years. Inflation as reported in â€Å"The inflation rate in United States was last reported at 2.1 percent in February of 2011† (Unit ed States Inflation Rate, 2011) Currently the interests rates are being artificially depressed thanks to massive infusions of new money as a result of the Quantum Easing plan. In comparison Brazil in 2010 had a GDP of 2.194 trillion dollars with 7% unemployment. (Brazil, 2011) Germany had a GDP of 2.96 trillion dollars in 2010 with 7.4% unemployment. (Germany, 2011) Japan on the other hand had a GDP of 4.338 trillion dollars in 2010 with unemployment under all of the above at 5.1%. (Japan, 2011) When compared to the United States there is a very definite fiscal possibility available for global expansion. To retain market share at this point it would be necessary to increase our geographical market nationally at the very least. When compared to the United States there is several obvious discrepancies, more importantly the lower levels of unemployment make it easy to see that there is possibly more available income. In looking at the economic indicators such as the GDP, unemployment, interest rates and inflation it becomes clear that one of the prime indicators that should be addressed that would affect a portion of our customer base is inflation. The rate of inflation will most affect those consumers on a fixed income as they have the most to lose based on individual buying power. Japan for instance has maintained a low rate of inflation with a zero being reported in February of 2011. (Statistics Japan, 2011) This allows for a much higher purchasing power for consumers of our Shades of Youth line which directly caters to older individuals, these same individuals may be retired and on a fixed income. Germany is another nation with low rates of inflation and as a result this would be a good line in these locations as there is available purchasing income in the baby boomers market in these nations. Brazil on the other hand currently has over 6% inflation which would make it more difficult, though not impossible to sell a luxury like Shades of Youth. Super Clean an d Super White are both more necessary items than Shades of Youth and as a result we would want to market these in all three global areas as well as nationally. Because the global economy is suffering in many areas there will be a drive to consolidate business’s and promote stronger globalization pushes from current conglomerates. By taking

Fast Food in HK Essay Example for Free

Fast Food in HK Essay Fast food, as you can understand is the term referring to food that is prepared and can be delivered in a fast time. It is traditionally American style meal that always included French fries, burgers and soft drinks. Restaurants store precooked ingredients, once the customer gives an order, take-away can be ready in a while. To be called as â€Å"Fast food†, these foods must meet a few standards: good time management, quality stability and fixed price. It is a very popular meal style in some well-developed cities, since the people have a totally busy life. The first recorded fast food restaurant AW is founded in 1919 at the United States of America, and the second one is the famous company White Castle in 1921. In this century, fast food restaurants develop and most of them become chains suppliers. US people spent billions on buying fast food every year. The fast food globalization had now become a huge social issue. Nowadays there are over 500,000 fast food restaurants and thousands brands in the whole world. And today we are going to focus on the two head quarters in Hong Kong– McDonald’s and KFC. Introduction of McDonald’s McDonald’s is definitely the biggest fast food chain in the world. It founded in 1940 by Richard and Maurice McDonald. Nowadays, over 33,000 McDonald’s restaurants were established in the worldwide. The products of McDonald’s are in various types, mainly hamburgers, French fries, chickens and soft drinks. Sometimes, they will provide seasonal meal to attract customers such as ‘Shake Shake French fries’. Following differences of choices, McDonald’s would also offer vegetarian food too. In order to fit the culture, they may change the meal a little bit for example not providing beef in India. You can always find one on the street, because there are in total 200 stores in Hong Kong. McDonald’s became popular all the time due to busy life schedule of Hong Kong people. Introduction of KFC On the other hand, the Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) is the largest fried chicken shop in the world, and the second largest fast food chain after the McDonald’s. Harland Sanders founded KFC in 1930 at Kentucky in the United States of America. KFC practically sells fried chicken pieces, coleslaw and drinks. The popularity of KFC’s chicken comes from its original secret recipe which mixed with 11 herbs and spices. Not like the McDonald’s, KFC has a smaller scale with only 63 stores in Hong Kong. However, the numbers didn’t affect the KFC’s second largest place of fast food chain in Hong Kong. Advantages and disadvantages of Fast Food The biggest advantage of fast food is definitely FAST. People in modern societies are always in busy life schedule. Facing the hard workload, they may only have half an hour to have a meal and rush beck to their work. Thus, these quick service restaurants help to solve to lack of time problem. Meals can be prepared within ten minutes. No matter how delicious other food are, Hong Kong people have not enough time to buy ingredients, cook or enjoy. Second is the stability of food within one chain of fast food restaurant. Tastes are mainly the same in any store. You will never taste bad with the same meal. And the prices are predictable and affordable too. One fast food meal is always cheaper than you cook alone at home. However, fast food as called as junk food, affecting people’s health. Restaurant usually uses a lot of additives such as salt, flavorings and preservatives. The large amount of calories and additives are harmful to human body. Since the fast food is all pre-cooked, the nutrients of the ingredients are lost. Therefore, some people may say that fast food is only for surviving. Eating fast food in a long term may cause various diseases such as diabetes and heart attack. Comparison of McDonald’s and KFC In Hong Kong, McDonald’s is obviously in a larger scale than KFC. Except the differences on the food kinds, the way they run the company are a bit different too. Apart from fast food restaurant, McDonald’s have McCafes to provide desserts and coffee like Starbucks. Besides, McDonald’s have works in different area of society such as charity, children health affair. But the KFC is just only a restaurant in Hong Kong. Therefore, people would called McDonald’s as a better company than KFC in Hong Kong.

Annotation: Dante?s Inferno, Page 81, L 31 to Page 82, L 63 :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The encounter between Dante, the main character, and Filippo Argenti, a member of the condemned, deals with Dante’s response to Argenti’s place in hell, his disdain for Argenti, and his symbolic rejection of sin by his actions. Dante has no sympathy towards Argenti even though Argenti is condemned to stay in the slimy River of Styx until the Judgment. Dante holds great animosity towards Argenti carried on from conflicts they have had in life to the putrid circles of hell. The hostility Dante demonstrates marks his progression in his journey of purification. With his unprecedented denouncement of a sinner, Dante has proven his journey through hell has not been traveled in vain, but effectively to cleanse his sins from his soul.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dante reacts with curses upon hearing the calling of Filippo Argenti. As Dante crosses the River of Styx on a boat with his guide, Virgil, Argenti cries out to Dante from the river for Argenti had recognized a live man on the boat. Upon identifying his partner in conversation, Dante changes his tone and curses Argenti. Dante says, â€Å"May you [Argenti] weep and wail to all eternity, for I know you, hell-dog, filthy as you are.† Dante explicitly curses Argenti, inducing other sinners also condemned to the River of Styx to attack Argenti. As Argenti wails in response to the attack, Dante sails away and thanks God that â€Å"the loathsome spirit† is mangled.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dante’s actions display a great disdain for Argenti, which had been brought into hell from life on the world above. Dante curses Argenti with rage and strong resentment, obvious evidence that Dante and Argenti do not get along. Dante denounces Argenti and refers to him as a hell-dog. Dante has such immense contempt for Argenti that he refuses to even speak his name. In life, Dante and Argenti had been bitter political enemies, and Dante’s sharp remarks are meant to insult Argenti and his political group. Dante took special measures to make his disdain for Argenti as clear as possible.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By denouncing a sinner, Argenti, for the first time, Dante has shown evidence of purification. Because denouncing a sinner is an acknowledgement of a sin, the sin is expelled. Thus, Dante purifies himself of being wrathful from his own soul by denouncing Argenti. Dante’s journey through the first five circles of hell has hardened Dante’s heart towards sinful men.

A Call To Occupy Movement Essay examples -- Social Issues

The Occupy Movement has inspired a domino-like effect the world over, starting rebellions from the Americas to Asia. The universal vision of the movement is its aim to get the 99% to overthrow the rules decided and regulated by the rich, the powerful and the one percent for the greater benefit of the one percent. According to the anonymous writers of the official Occupy Movement page, â€Å"to occupy is to embody the spirit of liberation that we wish to manifest in our society. It is to exercise our freedom to assemble. We are creating space for community, values, ideas, and a level of meaningful dialogue that is absent in the present discourse† (OccupyWallSt.org, 2011). The circulation of this idea to reach an extensive spectrum of people has never been as easy as it is in today’s globalized world. The world, just a few decades ago, was very different from the world we see today. Today, information from one country can be accessed ten thousand miles away in a few se conds—and it is this type of access to information that makes the rebellions, sprouting all over, possible. The amount of different opinions and ideas people in today’s society have is as great as the number of people who can access the Internet—the main thing that makes our world as globalized as it is. And all these people with Internet access can take action through occupation. A person who occupies the very streets the movement is being done in is another voice to the 99%, trying to change the old ways of politicians and company bigwigs. And with the movement’s growth, people continue and join the fight against dated practices still trying to be pushed forward by governments all over the world. The occupiers fight back; they do not stay in the clear; they figh... ...Nov. 2011 . Beinart, Peter. "Occupy Wall Street Will Have Seismic Effect, Marks Split With Obama, Dems." The Daily Beast. 26 Nov. 2011 . Adam, Karla. "Occupy Wall Street protests go global - The Washington Post." Washington Post: Breaking News, World, US, DC News & Analysis. 26 Nov. 2011 . Moran, Lee. "Global protests: Occupy the London Stock Exchange takes over the City | Mail Online." Home | Mail Online. 26 Nov. 2011 .

Abortion Policy and Its Consequences

Abstract In this paper I will discuss the most dominant trends in abortion reports in the modern age. We will discuss the issues of morality, health risks and benefits and socioeconomic factors that are a part of the abortion discussion. There is a great deal of evidence to suggest that the debate of the morality of abortion Is an ongoing and ever-evolving discussion. Some of the points made in the articles discussed are seen as unique or radical, while others are points that have lasted through time and are still strong and relevant today.This paper will analyze the current dialogue that s occurring within our scholarly journals across the globe, including points of view from Japan, Bangladesh, Australia and the United States. The key common point that is made throughout the literature is that despite local laws, religious beliefs, and services provided, women are still seeking and getting abortions. Abortion Policy and Its consequences By the sass's abortion was a very common proce dure. In an article by Alistair El- Muar, it is documented that more than one-third of Australian families were affected by abortion procedures in the sass's.There is a great deal of confusion surrounding he subject because, while abortion is legal in many countries, it is often not discussed, clinics are hidden or not made obvious of their location and purpose, and often times euphemisms are used such as â€Å"getting rid of† or â€Å"taking care of† a Japan, the topic of abortion has been more open for discussion; the subject that is taboo is oral contraceptive pills. While abortion is legal and available to women in Japan, the use of contraceptives – the pill and condoms – are used sparingly or only during â€Å"dangerous days,† when a woman is ovulating.However, this results in a spike in the number of unwanted abortions. Japan differs greatly from other countries such as the United States and Australia in that abortion is not seen as a poor ch oice, but, rather, a better choice than taking oral contraceptives. The legality of abortion varies across the globe. But one thing that has stayed consistent and universal over the past twenty years is the abortion rate. Whether legal or not, women are still getting abortions at the same rate in most countries.In El-Murmur's article â€Å"Representing the Problem of Abortion: Language and the Policy Making Process in the Abortion Law Reform Project in Victoria, 2008,† the recess of legislature reform is described in the light of allowing and extending abortion rights for women. El-Muar shows how the manner in which abortion issues are discussed are commonly over laden with vague language or language that emphasizes a moral bias rather than a logical, rational process of argumentation. Too often the lawmakers are distracted by the colorful language that tugs at heartstrings as opposed to carefully considering the soundness of the arguments being made.The essence of many argum ents is, â€Å"This is wrong because I believe it is wrong. † Legislators consider this – whether knowingly or not is unclear – as valid a mint as an argument in the form of, â€Å"The evidence I have presented proves my point because X, Y and Z. † El-Murmur's concern with the distraction and misrepresentation of issues is a valid point of concern. How can we make measured, calculated decisions for the entire country when such non-rational, non-linear argumentation is employed?While the representation of the issue is most likely going to go unresolved for many more years, the Australian government has already come to a conclusion regarding abortion policies. The legislature now indicates that the controversy over abortion is no longer a legal issue, but, rather, a medical issue. In 1992, the Women's Health Committee of National Health and d Medical Research Council (NRC) gathered an expert panel to review the data regarding abortion and the legality of th e procedure. The expert panel completed their report in 1996, concluding that abortion should be decentralized.However, the NRC rejected their report and argued in opposition – that abortion be illegal. The actual penal code stated that abortion was illegal and punishable by incarceration. However, in the majority of cases in which a woman had an abortion and was prosecuted, the defendants were acquitted due to the defense of necessity – the defense made a strong legal argument that the benefits of the procedure outweighed and Justified the illegal action. This dichotomy of code versus punishment has lead to a great deal of confusion among the Australian population.In 2008, the Abortion Law Reform Bill decentralized abortion for citizens of Australia. Not only did it make abortion a legal procedure, but the bill also extended the window of time in which a woman has the opportunity to receive abortion services after conception. Many who are opposed to this new reformati on believe ND bias without any strict, adhered-to guidelines. Now that abortion is no longer illegal, women are unafraid of punishment. However, there is still a great debate amongst medical professionals as to whether or not they are required to perform such a procedure Just because it is legal.Many doctors who are morally opposed to abortion are turning patients away, despite the new legality. The morality of abortion appears to be an even stronger determinant than the legality of the procedure. In fact, in Robert Audio's article, â€Å"Preventing Abortion as a Test Case for the Justifiability of Violence,† Audio argues that while abortion may be gal, and murder illegal, it is morally acceptable (and he extends this to â€Å"legally justifiable†) to prevent the instance of abortion by murdering the individual providing abortion services.While Audio's stance on abortion is clearly an oppositional one, his argument is not as clear or as understandable – despite one's personal views. In this mixed moral-legal discussion, Audio asserts that a would-be mother and her physician are guilty of murder/harm of the unborn child; while any individual who acts in violence toward either the would-be mother or the physician is morally innocent cause of a commitment to protecting the intrinsically innocent, the fetus.Whether it be a violent, harassing protest or actual physical harm done to an individual involved in providing abortion services, Audio argues that such behavior is morally justifiable and should not be punishable by law. Audio's article is a bitter scholarly attack on all women who receive abortion services and all professionals who provide the service. His unsettling discourse leads us to wonder if, under Audio's reasoning, women should fear being â€Å"Justifiably' killed for desiring or having an abortion.Due to Audio's article and the number of people in society who may agree with him, women who consider abortion services are traumati zed repeatedly before, during and after such a procedure is performed. To make the decision to terminate a pregnancy is traumatic enough. But Audio's suggestions are horrific extensions of an already difficult situation. Furthermore, Audio's language throughout the article is dry and attempts to come across as objective.Instead of using buzz words such as â€Å"God† and â€Å"the Bible† when discussing the religious immorality of abortion, Audio uses weaker trigger words such as â€Å"miracle,† â€Å"divine,† and â€Å"scripture† which do not immediately Jump out at the deader as overtly motivated by Christianity. Audio asserts that, regarding women who accept abortion services, â€Å"We can act wrongly – counterrevolution, one might say – even when we are within our rights† (Audio, 162). This shows the polarity of Audio's perspective with regards to the law and what is Just. On another religious path, F.Cam provides a new, uni que argument in favor of abortion. Gamma's qualitative discussion of the intrinsic value of life and the varying degrees of importance amongst living creatures is a perfect counter-argument to Audio's radical perspective. Cam points out that the reason there is such scrappiness between what one morally believes is right and what one might realistically do in instances that may necessitate abortion services is that â€Å"we believe in the sacredness of individual life (including early fetal life)† (Cam, 222).He argues that there is more human investment – intellectually and emotionally – in the mother, but the sacredness of both individuals – mother and fetus – is equal. Cam calls potential to suffer greatly or even die from a pregnancy that is carried to term, Cam asserts that the woman's death is worse – more undesirable – than if the fetus were ported. This follows a common belief that while no deaths are always preferable, one deat h is more preferable than two. If a mother were to suffer complications or die during childbirth, there would be a great likely hood of facing two deaths.Furthermore, Cam argues that women, as adults, have intrinsic, incremental objective value as well as intentions, goals, and rights. Whereas a fetus only has intrinsic, incremental objective value (sacredness). This argument is particularly moving in that it reflects that desire to promote the health and well being of the adult woman. Gamma's argument considers the quality of live that a woman facing the obstacle of abortion can potentially have due to the benefits that abortion procedures offer.Not many – and clearly no Audio's – arguments take into consideration the fact that once the ordeal is done, the woman's quality of life will be much better than if she had faced the risk of carrying a pregnancy to term and raising a child. Gamma's argument is unique and may even inspire changes within the church and within co mmunities in countries that are primarily Christian. A key deciding factor in the internal debate women face of whether or not to go wrought with abortion procedures is the different aspects of responsibility. In an article by Lawrence B.Finer, Lori F. Forthwith, Lindsay A. Dauphine, Seashell Sings and Ann M. Moore, 1,209 abortion patients were surveyed and interviewed regarding their reasons for choosing to have an abortion. Finer et al found that the results indicated that women today are much more concerned with their education and careers than what was previously understood. The majority of women – seventy-four percent of those interviewed – reported that a child would interfere with their education, their career, or the ability to care for pre-existing dependents.The next most common response – seventy-three percent of those interviewed – was that financial hardship and the inability to adequately provide for a child was the reason for terminating th eir pregnancy. The third most common deciding factor – forty-eight percent of those interviewed – was that the individual was going through relationship problems or was facing being a single mother. An analysis of the study participants showed that 40% of the women had decided that they were through with their childbearing years and wanted no more children.Thirty percent of the women stated that they had no children and were not ready to come mothers at this time. The researchers also found that the percentage of women who said that their reasoning for getting an abortion was because their parents or their partner wanted them to was less than one percent. Also, the issue of health – either that the individual was currently not in good health or that she feared a pregnancy would compromise her health – was rarely a concern. This study, both qualitative and quantitative, revealed a great deal about the population of women receiving abortion services today.T his article has helped to promote a better understanding and lessen the misconceptions of the concerns and oratories of women today. Also, we are able to see that in the majority of cases the decision to get an abortion is not a spontaneous decision, but, rather, a well thought out and planned decision that has been analyzed carefully by the individual. Women with regards to how a child would affect their quality of life and how their current lifestyle would affect a child's quality of life if the pregnancy were carried to term.From 1987 to 2004, the reasons for seeking abortion services have remained consistent and the data have changed little. In the debate of morality, it is notable hat women are consciously considering and reconsidering all aspects of this decision. The majority of the women interviewed in this study felt that they were making the best decision. While the consideration of one's education and career weigh heavily on women in America, the same factors are not as p aramount in other countries such as Japan.In a study by Going IMHO titled Can Have Abortions But No Oral Contraceptive Pills': Women and Reproductive Control in Japan,† the issue of eugenic abortions and unwanted pregnancies is illuminated in a new light. In Japan, a strong emphasis is placed on the natural remedies of the body and healing. Anything synthetic and unnecessary is considered toxic. This includes oral contraceptive pills. While condom use is publicly accepted as responsible and sufficient birth control, the use of condoms is not nearly as effective in preventing pregnancy as in the United States.This is because there is a common notion that condoms are only necessary on â€Å"dangerous days,† when a woman is ovulating and most likely to become pregnant (IMHO, 102). When intercourse is had on a day that is not considered â€Å"dangerous† condoms are rarely used. The legalization of abortion came about primarily in order o prevent extra-marital pregnan cies due to the large number of conceptions that occurred because of ineffective contraception use. Micro's quantitative report on the shocking number of abortions performed in Japan shows the striking cultural differences between eastern and western populations.In the post-World War II era in Japan, the desire for procreation and large families flipped to a preference for small families with only one or two children. The decision to proceed with a pregnancy or to terminate with abortion services was largely affected in this era by the advancement of medical science and eugenics. Thanks to new developments in medicine, women are able to have a portion of cells from the amniotic fluid surrounding the fetus tested for genetic defects. In Japan especially, any birth defects – whether they be cystic fibrosis, Downs syndrome, or ATA-cash, etc. Are reason for serious consideration and formability of abortion. However, after a large population of women did decide to use oral contrac eptive pills after the development of a low-dose hormone pill, the number of abortions dropped significantly. Until these numbers decreased, ninety-nine percent of all abortions in Japan were done so legally under the Eugenic Protection Law. This law legalized induced abortions as early as 1948. In 1996, this law was renamed the Maternal Body Protection Law due too rise in opposition against eugenics.In 1955, Japan reported 1. 17 million abortions performed each year. This number slowly declined as condoms became widely accepted as proper contraceptive use and declined further after World War II and eugenics practices became the norm. In the sass's, a group led by Nook Moisakos called for the abolition of abortion laws and the cessation of access to oral contraceptive pills. While many agreed with their stance, Moisakos group was dismissed as radical, militant women's liberation activists. Many saw the pill as a step towards banning abortion.In her article, IMHO says, â€Å"Since t here is such and unfailing contraceptive such as the pill, abortions are no longer necessary' (IMHO, 101). Eugenics played a large role in the popularity of abortions in Japan. In Sabine Frustum's article â€Å"Women's Rights? : The Politics of Eugenic Abortion in Japan,† we are urged to despise the process of screening fetus for defects and the process of eugenic abortion. It is Frustum's position that the advancement of medical genealogy has launched a new era in abortion policy and has skyrocketed the number of abortions performed each year in Japan.While the numbers suggest that abortion rates have leveled and are fairly consistent year to year, Frustums makes a better argument for a negative disposition towards eugenics. For quite some time, as people watch the world of science grow and present new, unheard of feats, there has been concern over whether or not parents will eventually be able to biologically engineer the perfect child, taking all of the chance out of natur e's random order. This is a great concern of Frustum's as well – she calls this concept Freestanding† in its depravity.While many people in America see abortion as something that only affects the lower classes and the poor, Frustums emphasizes the opposite – that those with the financial means to screen their fetus for defects or diseases are the ones who are taking advantage of abortion services the most. However, Rachel K. Jones and her colleagues countered this idea by conducting a study entitled, â€Å"Patterns in the Socioeconomic Characteristics of Women Obtaining Abortions in 2000-2001 . † Jones et al. Adhered a representative sample of 10,000 women receiving abortion services ND analyzed their socioeconomic characteristics. In 2000, twenty-one in every one thousand women had an abortion. This ratio is startling in itself. Further analysis of their study participants gave more details as to the circumstances of our society. Jones et al. Found that t here was a higher rate of abortions amongst women who were between the ages of eighteen and twenty-nine, were unmarried, black or Hispanic, economically disadvantaged, had a previous birth, lived in a metropolitan area, and who were Christian.While there was an eleven percent decline in abortion dates from 1994 to 2000, the decline was mostly in women ages seventeen to twenty, and the rate actually increased amongst women who were poor or on Medicaid. Jones et al. Found that a high pregnancy rate is directly related to a high abortion rate. The researchers concluded that the only way to prevent abortion is to provide better opportunities for the lower classes in the forms of education and better health care.A decrease in unwanted pregnancies can be made possible by increasing awareness of, understanding of, and access to contraceptives – whether they be condoms, intrauterine devices, oral contraceptive pills, etc. Better health care for those who are struggling financially wo uld also provide better access to contraceptives. Similarly, because abortion services generally cost between $400 and $600, many women who are not in a financial position to afford professional services decide to obtain an abortion by other means. In an article by M.Bearer titled, â€Å"Making Abortions Safe: A Matter of Good Public Health Policy and Practice,† women are obtaining unsafe or unsanitary abortion Bearer analyzed the statistics of infection and mortality caused by improper abortion procedures. While the article partially encourages abortion and especially the equalization of such procedures, the emphasis of her article is on the health and safety of women. As many researchers have shown, the number of abortions that are performed is consistent across most countries, whether the process is illegal or not.Women are still resorting to abortion in times of unwanted pregnancy despite the possible legal ramifications. Server's stance is that with this in mind – that abortion is going to be a part of society whether we ban it or not – we might as well approve and legalize abortion so that women have the option of having the procedure done in a fee, clean environment rather than in a broken down storage shed by a man with a coat hanger.Abortion accounts for thirteen percent of maternal mortality (Serer, 580) and menstrual regulation (the process of removing the lining of a woman's uterus, similar to the natural menstrual cycle, to expel any implanted eggs, whether fertilized or not) is steadily increasing. In order to make abortion a completely safe procedure, we must first legalize abortion. Furthermore, training in abortion procedures should be required for all medical professionals – nurses, midwives, even pediatricians – and tot Just obstetrics and genealogy physicians, Bearer says.If we cannot legalize abortion, Bearer recommends at least reducing the punishment for those convicted of criminal abortion. Researchers Hide Bart Johnston, Elizabeth Oliver's, Sashimi Skater, and Diana G. Walker agree with Bearer in their article, â€Å"Health System Costs of Menstrual Regulation and Care for Abortion Complications in Bangladesh. † Johnston et al. Advocate for increasing education and awareness of menstrual regulation as a birth control method in order to bridge the gap between unwanted pregnancy and abortion.These researchers assert that menstrual regulation – a process similar to the implantation of an intrauterine device in which a physician inserts a tube into a woman's cervix and removes via vacuum the lining of the uterus – is cheaper for medical service providers than treating the complications of illegal abortions. When abortion procedures go wrong, complications are a serious drain on medical resources in Bangladesh. This technique has also lead to a decrease in maternal deaths and has improved the economic conditions in the health care sector.In addition to their anal ysis of cost data related to abortion complications versus menstrual regulation, Johnston et al. Emphasize that this method of menstrual regulation reduces unwanted pregnancies without abortion and the terrible consequences that come with substandard abortion services. It is a simple, fast procedure that sidesteps illegal abortions and which can be seen as an ethical middle ground between abortion and carrying an unwanted pregnancy to term. This procedure is legal in most countries that have banned abortion. Johnston et al. Advocate for improved education for women who may benefit from this procedure.The common theme amongst all of the articles we have discussed so far is that ore and better medical services should be available to women – whether it be to prevent unwanted pregnancy, to provide better care for pregnant women, or to provide abortion services. In a case study by Maharani Malaria, S. Sirius, and S. A researchers discuss the tragic case of a twenty-six year old wo man who received an ill-performed abortion by a man with a wooden stick. The woman came into the emergency room suffering from abdominal pain and a sever fever indicating infection. Septic abortion is a spontaneous, therapeutic or artificial abortion complicated by pelvic infection† (Malaria, 149). In India, twelve percent of maternal deaths are caused by septic abortion. After describing this horrific case, Malaria et al. Strongly recommend to the public that abortion policy be reviewed and legalized in order to prevent the instance of septic abortion. In an anonymous article titled â€Å"A Doctor Tells Why She Performed Abortions – And Still Would† and written under the pseudonym â€Å"Dry. X,† a female doctor describes why she refuses to stop providing abortion services.The number of providers of abortion services (that is, licensed and medically trained with sanitary facilities) has decreased from 2,680 in 1985 to 1,787 in 2005. And while doctors are r etiring, the new enervation of physicians are not being taught how to perform abortion services. As teaching hospitals have merged with religious institutions, abortion is no longer being taught to medical students. There are more than 1. 5 million abortions performed each year, making it the most common medical procedure in the United States. However, there are fewer and fewer providers of such services despite the consistent demand.This has resulted in more amateur providers conducting the procedure in less-than-sanitary conditions. Similarly, the aggressiveness and number of protesters outside of abortion clinics has risen to shocking levels. Instead of seeking out abortion services, women are hiding from the shame placed on them by these protesters, staying at home, and attempting to perform the procedures on themselves with reeds or knitting needles (Dry. X, 1265). According to Dry. X, the solution to this problem is, â€Å"All physicians who care for reproductive-age women sh ould have opt-out, rather than opt-in, abortion training† (Dry.X, 1266). This will encourage medical students to participate in the training rather than going through the process of opting out of the course. This is one realistic solution to the problem of declining numbers of abortion service revisers. However, the consensus still seems to be that the most important step for us to take is legalizing abortion and doing away with punishments for those who receive and perform abortion services. In an article posted in the London Lancet, titled â€Å"Abortion in the U. S. A. ,† the statistics of abortion in America are clearly outlined.Nearly half of all pregnancies are unintended. There are twenty-two abortions performed for every one thousand pregnancies. And while the legalization of abortion has changed over time and across cultures, the abortion incidence, rate and ratio have remained the same. Drug induced abortion is a new phenomenon that is peeking the interest of women all over the country. But these articles have left us wondering, is it better for women to experiment with chemicals and knitting needles than to provide professional abortion services? Where do our moral principles lie?Who is the priority in this situation: the health and lives of women all over the globe or unborn fetus that have not yet begun to experience life? While the morality issue is certainly one of open debate, there is a platform on which we all can agree – we must take provide care for all. The statistics have proven omen facing an unwanted pregnancy are still going to seek abortion services if they decide it is the only feasible option. The tone and primary focus of the scholarly journal articles reviewed here vary along a wide spectrum.

McDonalds Essays

McDonalds Essays McDonalds Essay McDonalds Essay McDonalds is the largest corporation globally which deals with a chain of the fast food restaurants. The company has been steadily expanding thus leading to its large global market base. The company has a competitive advantage over its competitors and this is due to its strategic management choices which have been made in the recent past.SWOT analysisMcDonalds has a very strong market position since it is the largest food service and the fast food retailing chain globally that is strengthened by the strong all round growth that is witnessed by the company. It is also important to note that the there is a growing health consciousness among the consumers and this has however added to the adversities of the company are brought to the business by a market that is saturated. With the combination of the rising beef prices there could be pressure margins for the company.Strengths.McDonalds has a market leading position in the industry and it also has a vigorous all round growth together wit h very strong brand equity. The company is also known for its consistency in its food industry and it also has very successful items such as fries and the Big Mac promotions. (Aaker, David 1984)Weaknesses.McDonalds also has some weaknesses which includes the operating losses in the Latin America region as well as the non McDonalds brand businesses. Similarly the company also has some relatively low productivity from the employees. The company also has some increased expenses in Europe. The company is also experiencing a decline in the market share and it also has a weak product development.Opportunities.McDonalds has very many opportunities including the alliance with the Warner home video as well as the new innovations in the menus which will further attract more consumers to visit the company’s chain stores globally. Similarly there is a rising Hispanic population in the United States of America and they are known as the best customers to the McDonalds chain stores because of the Hispanic foods which are prepared by the company. (Rowley Tashiro 2006)Threats.McDonalds is also faced with some threats such as the rising prices of the raw materials which further leads to the price increment of the food products and this further lowers the company’s consumer’s consumption. Similarly there exists a threat since most of the consumers of the company’s food products are becoming more health conscious and thus if the company fails to upgrade its products with health consciousness in mind then it might loose out on most of its consumers. On the other hand the company is further faced with a threat of market saturation and this will stiffen the competition that is experienced in the industry especially from McDonald’s main competitor Wal-Mart.Strategic choices for McDonaldsThe company has a growth strategy that is based on three main elements which areAdding the restaurantsMaximizing the profits and the sales at the existing restauran tsImproving the company’s international profitabilityBy the company maximizing its profits and also sales at its existing restaurants it can accomplish this through better operations, product refinement and development, reinvestment, effective marketing and also lowering the development and operating costs. This will however lead to the realization of an improved profitability internationally and the achievement of the economies of scale in the individual markets. This will also make the company highly benefit from infrastructure globally. (Arndt 2007)At the functional level McDonalds has adapted strategies which will lead to the expansion of the production of a wide range of food products by the promotion of new menu items. The company is also focusing on maintaining its quality and consistency of its food products as well as launch higher end restaurants under the new brands which would not be saddled with the company’s fast food image.At the global level McDonalds h as a strategy which has a global perspective thus the company has strategies which effectively integrates the three global forces which are the global business, the regional pressures and also the worldwide functions. The company at the global level wants to add more restaurants globally and this will expand its market base. (Anthony 1998)Comparisons between growth strategies at McDonalds and Wal-MartMcDonaldsThe company has a unique growth strategy which allows it to strategically locate its new stores across the nation in a leapfrogging manner unlike the other stores.The company’s growth strategy is not homegrown but rather international since it has bought some of its existing retail chains so as to preserve its control over its corporate culture.The company has a new strategy of leveraging its brand equity.The company’s strategy of product development focuses on the core business and it also covers the quality and taste issues.Another strategy that has been adapted by the company is the joint ventures and McDonald has changed the methods of dealing with its franchisees.McDonalds has a market penetration and development strategy that will allow it to continue with its international expansion.Wal-MartThe company has a unique growth strategy which allows it to strategically locate its new stores near the smaller towns and the distribution hubs.The company has a continued expansion of the super center format as well as the market share gains that are in the food business.The company has a strategy which focuses on the international growth and acquisitions.The company has a growth strategy that focuses on the expansion and the upgrading of its units in the Sams club division.The company has a strategy that is an eventual roll out of the neighborhood drugs store and market food format.The company has a strategy that leverages its productivity of the declining base in the discount stores with the food additional.The company also has a strategy of th e methodical approach to the on-line retailing. McDonalds Essays McDonalds Essay McDonalds Essay McDonalds has been a family name for the last many decades. It operates on a franchise based model which has enabled it to spread all over the globe. Its operations have been largely profitable. In fact, it was only in 2003 that McDonalds reported its first ever quarterly loss. Since then a lot has changed in the way McDonalds reaches out to the customer. This is the focus of the discussion here. James R. Cantaloupe, Chairman and CEO, McDonalds said in 2003 The world has changed. Our customers have changed. We have to change too. This laid the foundation for the change which McDonalds went through. A key aspect of understanding what strategy to follow is to re-assess the needs of the market. Also the companys relationship with the internal stakeholders like the franchisees needed to be reviewed. During the process of evaluation, McDonalds used the latest technological tools like the internet to enable their brand managers to communicate with the franchisees and compare and improve their services. McDonalds studied demographics to identify which customer profiles visited there franchises and for what reasons. They realized that kids were their biggest customers but to get the kids to come in to the restaurants the parents had to be convinced also. During the study they also identified health consciousness as a major factor driving people away from McDonalds. Another factor affecting sales was the products offered as customers were looking for options other than the complete meals offered. Delivery times also came up as important determinants of customer satisfaction. Based on the studies, McDonalds conducted SWOT analysis and came up with a new marketing strategy based on the marketing mix consisting of 4Ps Product, Price, Promotion and Place. They decided to focus on expanding the product range to include healthy and low cost options. They also reviewed their promotion strategy to target kids who belonged to the biggest consumer category. They also streamlined their processes to reduce delivery times. 2) Using relevant examples, evaluate how successful the organisations environmental scanning strategy is. Suggest how this strategy can be improved. The steps taken by McDonalds to change their marketing mix have been highly successful in getting the customers and the profit back. In 2006, McDonaldss had its best sales performance for 15 years in Europe. McDonalds decided to go in for a health conscious image. They offered a range of healthy food selections on their menu. They also started to publish the nutritional content details of the food items on the packaging. New Saver products were offered which promised a quick bite for a low price. These changes in the product offerings were supported by promotional campaigns designed win back the lost customers. The processes required for getting the product to the customer were also reviewed. This resulted in tie-ups with local vendors to ensure freshness of the inputs. McCafes were introduced as exclusive coffee shops to attract the young crowd which needed a meeting point to get together with friends. The advertisements which addressed kids specifically helped bring the kids back. Availability of healthier food options and information about the nutritional value of the available products has helped them win a large number of health conscious consumers. To increase customer satisfaction they also focussed on the time taken to deliver their products. McDonalds can take a number of steps to get a better understanding of the environment theyre a part of. This, if followed by appropriate changes to the marketing mix, can help enhance the sales performance and profitability in the future. Some of these possible steps are discussed below. The internet can be a very effective tool to reach the masses. McDonalds can use the internet to run online promotion and research campaigns. Also the use of the social networking options like Twitter and Facebook can be beneficial to understand their customers and their requirements better. Improved analysis of the supply chain processes can help in increasing their efficiency. This can result in reduced costs and therefore reduced prices for the customers thus increasing sales. McDonalds can also analyse the franchise locations so that they can be spaced more evenly compared to the current situation where the distribution is not so even.

Women in Beowulf Essays

Women in Beowulf Essays Women in Beowulf Essay Women in Beowulf Essay Essay Topic: Beowulf Grendel In nearly every society throughout history, women have never held an extremely important place. The role of a woman seems miniscule compared to that of a man. However, there are some women who abide to the unwritten rules of how to behave, and others who challenge those rules. The contradicting roles of the women in the poem beowulf aim to show the differences between them and how they exist in society. The characters who are mainly introduced into these various roles in the poem consist of Queen Modthryth, Grendel’s Mother, Hrothgar’s wife Wealhtheow, and Queen Hygd; all of whom play roles in the poem that either contradict or relate to each other. In Beowulf, Queen Wealhtheow serves as the ideal example of an appropriate woman. After Beowulf defeated Grendel, the Queen spoke to all of the occupants of Heorot Hall as the hostess of the banquet. Just one small example of Wealhtheow’s cadence and poise comes from her praise to Beowulf for his defeat of Grendel as she says, â€Å"And so, my prince, / I wish you a lifetime’s luck and blessings/ to enjoy this treasure. Treat my sons/ with tender care, be strong and kind. / Here each comrade is true to the other, / loyal to lord, loving in spirit† (lines 1224-1227). This shows the genuine kindness that Hrothgar’s wife exudes. The men react with extreme pleasure to her speaking, giving applause for their Queen, which demonstrates that men in that time period did hold respect for a woman who was tasteful, kind, and most importantly gave praise towards other men. Queen Wealhtheow serves as the picture of grace, poise, kindness, and most importantly as a vast contrast between other women throughout the poem. The next woman to make an appearance in the poem comes in the form of a monster. Grendel’s mother’s stark contrast to the traditional role of the queen shows that a woman who refuses to follow that traditional role becomes an outcast of society. Grendel’s mother first appears at Heorot Hall as everyone sleeps from the overwhelmingly joyful day of Grendel’s defeat. While they’re sleeping, she stages a surprise attack, slaughtering men for revenge. â€Å"Her onslaught was less/ only by as much as an Amazon warrior’s/ strength is less than an armed man’s/ when the hefted sword, its hammered edge/ and gleaming blade slathered in blood,/ razes the sturdy boar-ridge off a helmet† (lines 1282- 1287). The way in which she blindly murders so many men highlights her barbaric nature. She lacks all the grace and poise held by Wealhtheow. Her actions cause others in society to view her as a horrid monster. Grendel’s mother highly contradicts the traditional role of a kind or generous woman as compared to the Queen. Instead she plays the role of a horrendous murderer and burden upon society, challenging the well known role of women. One of the most obvious comparisons between women in Beowulf is that of Queen Hygd and Queen Modthryth. The contrast of the two shows the difference between an acceptable and unacceptable woman. The poem first introduces Queen Hygd as the ideal Queen, stating, â€Å"her mind was thoughtful and manners sure. / Haereth’s daughter behaved generously/ and stinted nothing when she distributed/ bounty to the Geats† (lines 1928- 1931). Throughout Beowulf, women who are thoughtful of men are seen as better members in society. Along with Queen Wealhtheow, Queen Hygd fulfills the role of the proper, submissive woman. The introduction of Hygd acts as a perfect lead into the story of Queen Modthryth. After the poem introduces Queen Hygd, it offers a stark contrast by introducing Queen Modthryth. Her unacceptable behavior was inevitably only able to change because of her marriage to a man. The story of the Queen began by telling how she committed awful murders, and the negativity that came from these crimes. Most people showed this as they thought,† Even a queen/outstanding in beauty must not overstep like that. /A queen should weave peace, not punish the innocent/with loss of life for imagined insults† (lines 1941-1944). The tone at this point in Beowulf holds obvious negativity towards Queen Modthryth. Murder in that society of innocent people was highly looked down upon, especially coming from a woman. However, the tone of the story changes when another tale of Queen Modthryth marrying Offa begins. Because of her marriage, she becomes graceful, devoted to her king, and overall a better woman in society. This stark contrast created between both opposites, Queen Hygd and Queen Modthryth, contributes to the many differences of women throughout the poem. The main four women compared throughout Beowulf are Queen Wealhtheow, Grendel’s Mother, Queen Modthryth, and Queen Hygd. Both Grendel’s mother and Queen Modthryth are examples of horrifying monsters who commit the worst of wrongs. They starkly contrast the peace-bringing and gracious roles of Queen Hygd and Queen Wealhtheow. Both queens represent their kings, King Hygelic and King Hrothgar, with great poise and kindness, the ideal role for a queen. Overall the contrast between the women in Beowulf show how each differs and exists in society.

The Pact essays

The Pact essays The Pact, written by Jody Picoult, was published in 1998 by William Monrow The story is about a suicide pact between two teenagers. The events of the novel take place in Bainbridge, New Hampshire, a small town in the United States. The main characters of The Pact are two seventeen-year-old teenagers, Emily Gold and Chris Harte, who have loved each other all their life. The novel tells the story of a young couple who were born and raised together, since their parents have been neighbours and friends for over 18 years. The Pact also tells the future of Chris, who is prosecuted for murder after his love was found dead in his arms, a bullet in the head. After revealing that he and Emily concluded a suicide pact, the friendship and the dreams of both families will change forever. Jodi Picoult centred her novel on the themes of love, family and relationships. The Pact shows how love can be stronger than every other feeling, and how it can sometimes urges people to do unthinkable things, even something like helping another commit suicide. Moreover, the novel demonstrates how parents sometimes think they know their children better than anybody else does, whereas it is often the opposite. Most of the time, teenagers confide themselves to their lover, and not to their parents, as shown in The Pact. Finally, The Pact shows how friendship is fragile when family is involved. Personally, I found the book The Pact very interesting. The story is not complicated to understand, which make the novel even more captivating for me, since I don't like to read. Moreover, the characters of The Pact are real people, with real concerns. For example, Emily is a teenager ...

Country study (China) Case Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Country (China) - Case Study Example ..6 1. Executive Summary Victory State Bank is a banking organization located in the United States of America in New York. Having expanded considerably, the organization has decided to set up a new shop in China in order expand its market and attract new customers. Therefore, the report examines different factors that will have to be considered in order to establish the viability of the area. The report will also examine the specific details that will be considered while entering the country 2. Introduction A number of factors need to be examined by an organization when it decides to venture a new market. This will especially be when the organization is venturing anew country altogether. Unlike opening a shop in the same country, opening in a different country might require the organization to change some factors in its setting. In this case, factors that will be examined include the mode of entry, the human resources, and the marketing and distribution strategies. Generally, these a re factors that will affect the overall operation of the newly opened shop. 3. Recommendations on how to enter the country 3.0Mode of entry The mode of entry that should be applied is the exporting mode. Exporting the services to the China people will attract them much easier and quicker. In addition, this is a cheap mode of entry since it involves very few expenses and costs. Exporting mode of entry is usually known to attract customers easily because the products or services have been brought closer to the customers’ location and thus, customers can easily access the services or products (Sun,  H., & University of Sydney, 1996). Therefore, this is a method that will require fewer advertisements and promotions as compared to the importing method. However, the method will have a disadvantage of competition. Victory State Bank will have to face stiff competition from the banks that have already been established in China. 3.1 Human Resources Victory State Bank will have to em ploy more staff members that can converse in Chinese fluently (Bailey, 2007). These will help in improving the mode of communication with the new customers. The selected management for the new branch will also have to be made of persons that are fully conversant with the culture and the political environment of the country. Thus, they will know how to solve matters concerning licensing and establishment fees. The organization might also have to employ some people from its country of origin instead of employing all its employees from China (Sun,  H., & University of Sydney, 1996). This will enable the organization to create employment in the country thus, creating a positive image for itself. Therefore, the mode of staffing used will mainly be geocentric, because while some crucial services require employees from the home country, others will use employees from the new country. The payment will still be constant since cases of increases in payments might lead to increased expenses. However, the organization will have to ensure effective training of the employees in order to ensure quality services. 3.2 Marketing The target market of the organization will be mainly business entities dealing with large sums of money, because they demand banking services highly (Beckwith,  1997). However, the organization will also target private individuals that demand banking

Exam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Exam - Essay Example Ultimately, it should be understood that within the current juncture in time, needle exchange programs are carried out almost exclusively by nonprofit organizations and are not directly linked to any type of taxpayer funding. From even a cursory level of research, the reader can come to the realization that needle exchange programs around the nation, and around the globe for that matter, or originally intended as a means of providing drug addicts a fresh injection mechanism that would not have the risks traditionally associated with shared needles; to include HIV, hepatitis, and a litany of other blood-borne pathogens that were shared between drug users as they shared needles (Kalo & Racz, 2013). In order to understand the mentality behind needle exchange programs, it is necessary to understand the fact that the drug users themselves working to maximize the level of money that they could spend to get high; without the added expense of purchasing fresh needles as a means of effecting such an end. In such a way, each and every one of the needle exchange programs serves as a means of providing the drug user with fresh needles without the requirement that the drug addict/user will be required to pay for these clean needles. An unintended effect of such an approach is the fact that this approach often furthers a level of discretionary spending on the part of the drug user which is in turn used to purchase more drugs. As the drug users are no longer responsible for providing themselves with clean, fresh needles, the amount of discretionary spending which can be directed solely and entirely towards the drug itself is increased; at least in small part. Ultimately, determining whether or not needle exchange programs are effective is a question of which determinate it is being measured. What is meant by this is the fact that if one seeks to measure whether or not needle exchange programs have been effective with regards to curbing drug abuse, the answer is an obvious and resounding no (Xing, 2012). However, if one seeks to measure whether or not needle exchange programs have been effective with regards to reducing the overall levels of blood-borne pathogen infections among drug users, the answer would necessarily have to be a resounding yes. A number of studies that conducted the past years have definitively indicated that lower levels of blood-borne pathogen related diseases exist among communities of drug users that are reliant upon clean fresh meal supplies via needle exchange programs as compared to those who do not. 2. Scare tactics have long been employed as a means of effecting a particular goal within a particular group of individuals. One does not have to think back very far to realize the means by which scare tactics were used even within one’s own high school with respect to sexually transmitted diseases. In almost each and every health class within the United States, students were shown a series of horrifically distorted genitali a as a means of providing a stark warning with regards to the dangers of unprotected sexual intercourse (Twonbly et al, 2011). In much the same means, scare tactics have been utilized with regards to seeking to prevent drug use among children by integrating the most horrific images of what drug usage ultimately portends for the life

Case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 41

Case study - Essay Example For Virgin Company, the major resource is Richard, its founder. He portrays strong leadership which very important in developing new capabilities for the company. His carefree adventure and entrepreneurial skills helped him in coming up and implementing his new business ideas. He is very aggressive leader and his devotion to business has resulted in the establishment of other Virgin Companies such as Virgin Cola, Virgin Rail, and Virgin Record and Virgin Atlantics. His leadership role has enabled him to establish a strong corporate culture and also promote the image of the company and the spirit of entrepreneurship. He believes in doing things differently and thus does not advocate for bureaucracy and thus he has become more strategic and charismatic leader and his business dream have been the force behind the success of the Virgin companies (Hellriegel & Slocum, 2010:344). Virgin brand is also another major link (Enz, 2010:345). The names of the brands and the trade marks acts as reputation assets. With the brand the group has been able to create other companies with similar quality since the Virgin brand has instilled confidence in customers (Thorne and Pellant, 2007:234). The brand gives the firm, its competitive advantage in the market and thus helps a lot in safeguarding and attracting a new market share for the company. The companies have also got enough investments and working capital. Richard Branson ensures that all the companies are well funded and the proceeds from one company may be used to invest in another company. This was the case in 1992 when a Virgin record was sold to EMI and the funds realized was used in Virgin Atlantic. This helps to ensure that all the companies are running and thus offering the best opportunities for growth (Plunkett, 2009b:34) Virgin Companies in its growth strategy have diversified into several business

Computer engineer Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Computer engineer - Research Paper Example Bachelor's degrees in software engineering or computer science are a common place to start. Coursework to prepare the student Computer Engineer will include such topics as database design, systems analysis, critical thinking and technical writing. Because computer technology is a field that is constantly changing, continued education is vital to a successful career in Computer Engineering. High school students interested in pursuing this type of work should study mathematics, computer science, and physics. They should also take computer- programming courses in school or learn computer languages in their spare time. When in college, students should try to gain experience by getting an internship with software engineers. Most employers require that computer software engineers have a college education in computer science or software engineering. For more demanding jobs, a graduate degree is preferred. Knowledge of the major computer languages is a must. National certification courses ar e offered for most major computer languages, including C++, Java, and XML. ... ties and Responsibilities of a Computer Engineer Computer software engineers develop and maintain computer software programs, which are coded instructions that tell the computer what to do in logical steps. Software engineers work on a wide range of projects. They work in manufacturing, industry, engineering, government offices, and educational institutions. Sometimes they work on improving computer systems already in use. When asked to develop a program, a software engineer would first analyze the task and apply techniques of computer science, engineering, and mathematical analysis to come up with the best solution. The software engineer would then prepare systems flow charts that show diagrammatically how information would flow through the computer and its peripheral equipment to get the job done. Finally, they would create an outline of the actual program. In a large organization, such as a computer software company, computer engineers would instruct computer programmers to write the actual code that makes up the program and intercede only when the programmers have a problem. Once the program has been developed, the software engineer may test it for problems and examine it for errors in logic or data. Some programs require days to write, while others may require a year or so. (Cited from Barbara Bellesi; Computer Engineer-Duties and Salaries) Industry Growth and Wages Computer engineers will be in hot demand as computer networks grow in importance for companies both large and small. As a computer engineer, you can find employment in a variety of industries in both the public and private sectors, such as business, telecommunications, government, and health care. Computer engineers specializing in the Internet will be successful in finding employment for businesses

Management, Work and Society People, Management and Business Essay

Management, Work and Society People, Management and Business - Essay Example As the trade transactions have immensely increased, traders are compelled to find new sources of human power. In the words of Phillips (2009), for every business, an experienced and skilled worker is an invaluable asset and hence employers are willing to retain such employees at any cost. As a result, modern marketers offer improved worksite environment as long as possible. Similarly, the demographics factor also plays a crucial role in determining the future of work force. The UK government has also realized the increased need of human power in future so that it gives great emphasis employees’ healthcare. In addition, day to day developments in technology also greatly contributes to employees’ interests. For instance, improved technological developments minimize the workload to a large extent. The increasing participation of female workers in UK workforce also indicates a prosperous future work. With intent to improve the work future, employers have made considerable c hanges in work schedules and they pay higher attention to ensure that the implemented changes best suit the interests of the employees. In the opinion of Williams, â€Å"Foramalisation and commodification of work is seen to be increasingly taking place with an open world economy† (Williams, 2009). ... International Labour Organisation, unemployment occurs when people have no jobs although they actively searched for opportunities within the past four weeks. Evidently, employment rate plays a vital role in determining a country’s level of economic growth. A lower unemployment rate clearly indicates the faster development of the economy (Sesric reports). When the unemployment rate is higher in a country, the government is forced to declare additional incentives and subsidies in the employment sector and this situation impedes the rapid economic growth of the country. Hence, it is necessary to create adequate job opportunities in a country so as to effectively employ the maximum potentials of available human resources. However, it is observed that 2.49 million people in the United Kingdom were unemployed in 2009 and it was the highest figure recorded since March 1995. According to Office for National Statistics, in the 12 months ending June 2010, the unemployment has varied bet ween 2.9% and 14.1%. The people over 60 are most likely to be unemployed in UK since the employers believe that employees of this group cannot adequately contribute to the sustainability of their firms. The termination of experienced and skilled employees on the ground of age limit intensifies unemployment rate in UK. The higher unemployment rate causes far reaching consequences in a country. When a country possesses large number of unemployed citizens, it adversely affects the nation’s stature in the global market; and thereby foreign investors hesitate to invest with the nation. Similarly, if the nation is unable to produce adequate employment opportunities, people tend to look for jobs abroad; this condition will seriously impinge on the increased need of human resources that would arise

Computer engineer Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Computer engineer - Research Paper Example Bachelor's degrees in software engineering or computer science are a common place to start. Coursework to prepare the student Computer Engineer will include such topics as database design, systems analysis, critical thinking and technical writing. Because computer technology is a field that is constantly changing, continued education is vital to a successful career in Computer Engineering. High school students interested in pursuing this type of work should study mathematics, computer science, and physics. They should also take computer- programming courses in school or learn computer languages in their spare time. When in college, students should try to gain experience by getting an internship with software engineers. Most employers require that computer software engineers have a college education in computer science or software engineering. For more demanding jobs, a graduate degree is preferred. Knowledge of the major computer languages is a must. National certification courses ar e offered for most major computer languages, including C++, Java, and XML. ... ties and Responsibilities of a Computer Engineer Computer software engineers develop and maintain computer software programs, which are coded instructions that tell the computer what to do in logical steps. Software engineers work on a wide range of projects. They work in manufacturing, industry, engineering, government offices, and educational institutions. Sometimes they work on improving computer systems already in use. When asked to develop a program, a software engineer would first analyze the task and apply techniques of computer science, engineering, and mathematical analysis to come up with the best solution. The software engineer would then prepare systems flow charts that show diagrammatically how information would flow through the computer and its peripheral equipment to get the job done. Finally, they would create an outline of the actual program. In a large organization, such as a computer software company, computer engineers would instruct computer programmers to write the actual code that makes up the program and intercede only when the programmers have a problem. Once the program has been developed, the software engineer may test it for problems and examine it for errors in logic or data. Some programs require days to write, while others may require a year or so. (Cited from Barbara Bellesi; Computer Engineer-Duties and Salaries) Industry Growth and Wages Computer engineers will be in hot demand as computer networks grow in importance for companies both large and small. As a computer engineer, you can find employment in a variety of industries in both the public and private sectors, such as business, telecommunications, government, and health care. Computer engineers specializing in the Internet will be successful in finding employment for businesses

How Does the Low Cost Carrier Flydubai Manage to Increase It's Market Research Paper

How Does the Low Cost Carrier Flydubai Manage to Increase It's Market Share in the Aviation Industry in the Middle East Region - Research Paper Example The paper tells that the Dubai based Flydubai Airline is one of the LCCs that has succeeded in carving a considerable market niche for itself. The airline launched its operations in 2009 and has since spread its services to different parts of Asia, Europe, and Africa. One aspect that has made the airline successful is innovation on unique strengths and not in competing with larger airlines for above customer segments. The principle behind LCC is to offer services to routes that are considered less lucrative for larger airlines to operate. In order to understand the operations of Flydubai, it is necessary to investigate how the company operates and how it has spread its routes in determining its strategies and its competitive advantage. In addition, the report will investigate the strategies that the airline has put in place since its launch, and how these have contributed to the growth and expansion of the airline. This will indicate how the airline stands in comparison with other la rge airlines such as Emirates and regional LCCs in the Middle East. The report will show that strategic management and innovations are the most important factors that explain the rapid growth of Flydubai in the short time since its launch. Flydubai is a low-cost airline with its operations based at Dubai International Airport. The company was founded on 19 March 2008 but did not commence its operations until 1st June 2009. The airline offers its services in various destinations within the Middle East region, Europe, Africa and other Asian countries. The company has a good fleet of Boeing 737NGs, at its disposal, which is part of the latest lines of airplanes that have facilitated the company to compete effectively in the market. Flydubai was founded by Ahmed bin Saeed, the then Emirates chairman as a special brand of Emirates to offer the low-cost option to tourists and business operators within the region. Though the airline operates as an independent airline and even competes with Emirates, they offer some services in cooperation with Emirates, which include facilitating passenger connectivity in relation to dual boarding in the issuance of passes and baggage on the specific destination. Immediately after its launch, Flydubai remained in the black for about two years without reporting any figures. However, in February 2013, the company surprised many by reporting they had made a net profit of $ 41 million in 2012, with $756 million dollars in revenue. The rapid growth over its two years of operations opened another chapter in Dubai that proved the need to have more LCC in the rapidly expanding Dubai market.

The Examination of a Teen Killer Essay Example for Free

The Examination of a Teen Killer Essay Every Year there is a reported deathly school shooting around the world. Every year it is the same story about how a frustrated teen takes out his anger on the fellow students at school. In the next upcoming paragraphs I will digress on The Killer at Thurston High’s actions through Psychology, Sociology and Anthropology. Kip Kinkel had psychological problems at a young age. His family went to live in Spain for a year; this is where the problems began. Kip was only in the first grade and he was just learning English and since he was able to speak just in English, he would have difficulties understanding his Spanish teacher. Kip’s frustration came from his past language experiences, and also the never-ending weight on him of living up to the Kinkel name. It was way too much for a preteen like Kip to be involved with. He had the all-American: â€Å"perfect family†, if you will, but in his mind he did not feel welcomed. Kip thought of himself as the imperfect son, his sister on the other hand was athletic, smart, and well known by almost everyone in their community. The Kinkel parents were highly respected because of their field of a teaching career. This all left Kip down and depressed during most periods of his life. On May 21, Kinkel had been suspended for bringing a firearm to school the previous day, the suspension day came and Kip reacted by driving his father’s car to school. The 15 year old was covered by a trench coat with a 9-mm Glock and a 22-calibur pistol hidden underneath. Kip Kinkel opened fire in the cafeteria of Thurston High School in Springfield Oregon, killing two students and injuring as many as 20 others. The explanations of his actions are indescribable. From a sociologist stand point, how Kip reacted towards weapons would be a major factor to keep in mind. In this case Kip resolved many of his solutions by either firing guns that he’d gotten from his father, or by detonating home-made explosives. This shows how Kip Kinkel deals with his emotions on the inside. After the crisis at Thurston High school, the sheriffs deputies went to the Kinkel residence. There they found loud music playing in the main living room and the rotten smell of decaying bodies. During the confession tape of Kip Kinkel, he said that he loved his parents dearly, and that he â€Å"had to do it†. The deputies found the body of William P. Kinkel, 59 covered by a sheet in the first floor bathroom. Kip’s mother Faith M. Kinkel, 57 was found later in the garage  also covered by a white sheet. An anthropologist could only describe the purpose of the blaring music being played. Kip grew up listening to a lot of violent music, watching many death related movies, and also just becoming inflicted by the social media around him. Kip Kinkel felt that he had to do what he did in order to achieve bliss. These anthropological factors had a big influence on all of the actions that Kip pursued. In my opinion, this entire turn of deathly events could only be controlled through Kip Kinkel’s personal and psychological mind. As it was stated before, Kip grew up feeling that he was unwelcome and always alone in his life. This made him very frustrated and upset with himself, thus resulting in his aggressive solutions, (firearms and explosives). So if Kip grew up believing that he was a good kid, and that he could actually achieve other things that other people could do, he wouldn’t have been the Killer at Thurston High. In conclusion, the fact that Kipland Kinkel was raised in a different country and held back a grade made him a frustrated child right from the start. He was also an all American kid, who was raised around heavy firearms and this impacted his decisions to express his emotions violently. The final point that describes Kip’s actions is how he always listened to aggressive and shallow music, which resulted in him being more deep and dark, and also made him feel like he needed to do the things he did in order to move on. So the story of Kipland Kinkel is an older one, but keep in mind that something like this could happen anywhere!

Factors Affecting Web Applications Maintenance

Factors Affecting Web Applications Maintenance Chapter 1 1.1 Introduction Software engineering [PRE01] is the process associated with industrial quality software development, the methods used to analyze, design test computer Software, the management techniques associated with the control monitoring of Software projects the tools used to support process, methods, techniques. In Software Development Life Cycle, the focus is on the activities like feasibility study, requirement analysis, design, coding, testing, maintenance. Feasibility study involves the issues like technical/economical/ behavioral feasibility of project. Requirement analysis [DAV93] emphasizes on identifying the needs of the system producing the Software Requirements Specification document (SRS), [JAL04] that describes all data, functional behavioral requirements, constraints, validation requirements for Software. Software Design is to plan a solution of the problem specified by the SRS document, a step in moving from the problem domain to the solution domain. The output of this phase is the design document. Coding is to translate the design of the system into code in a programming language. Testing is the process to detect defects minimize the risk associated with the residual defects. The activities carried out after the delivery of the software comprises the maintenance phase. 1.2 Evolution of Software Testing Discipline The effective functioning of modern systems depends on our ability to produce software in a cost-effective way. The term software engineering was first used at a 1968 NATO workshop in West Germany. It focused on the growing software crisis. Thus we see that the software crisis on quality, reliability, high costs etc. started way back when most of todays software testers were not even born. The attitude towards Software Testing [BEI90] underwent a major positive change in the recent years. In the 1950s when Machine languages were used, testing was nothing but debugging. When in the 1960s, compilers were developed, testing started to be considered a separate activity from debugging. In the 1970s when the software engineering concepts were introduced, software testing began to evolve as a technical discipline. Over the last two decades there has been an increased focus on better, faster and cost-effective software. Also there has been a growing interest in software safety, protection and security and hence an increased acceptance of testing as a technical discipline and also a career choice. Now to answer, What is Testing? we can go by the famous definition of Myers [MYE79], which says, Testing is the process of executing a program with the intent of finding errors. According to Humphrey, software testing is defined as, the execution of a program to find its faults. Testing is the process to prove that the software works correctly [PRA06]. Software testing is a crucial aspect of the software life cycle. In some form or the other it is present at each phase of (any) software development or maintenance model. The importance of software testing and its impact on software cannot be underestimated. Software testing is a fundamental component of software quality assurance and represents a review of specification, design and coding. The greater visibility of software systems and the cost associated with software failure are motivating factors for planning, through testing. It is not uncommon for a software organization to spend 40-50% of its effort on testing. During testing, the software engineering produces a series of test cases that are used to rip apart the software they have produced. Testing is the one step in the software process that can be seen by the developer as destructive instead of constructive. Software engineers are typically constructive people and testing requires them to overcome preconceived concepts of correctness and deal with conflicts when errors are identified. A successful test is one that finds a defect. This sounds simple enough, but there is much to consider when we want to do software testing. Besides finding faults, we may also be interested in testing performance, safety, fault-tolerance or security. Testing often becomes a question of economics. For projects of a large size, more testing will usually reveal more bugs. The question then becomes when to stop testing, and what is an acceptable level of bugs. This is the question of good enough software. Testing is the process of verifying that a product meets all requirements. A test is never complete. When testing software the goal should never be a product completely free from defects, because its impossible. According to Peter Nielsen, The average is 16 faults per 1000 lines of code when the programmer has tested his code and it is believed to be correct. When looking at a larger project, there are millions of lines of code, which makes it impossible to find all present faults. Far too often products are released on the market with poor quality. Errors are often uncovered by users, and in that stage the cost of removing errors is large in amount. 1.3 Objectives of Testing Glen Myers [MYE79] states a number of rules that can serve well as testing objectives: Testing is a process of executing a program with the intent of finding an error. A good test is one that has a high probability of finding an as yet undiscovered error. A successful test is one that uncovers an as yet undiscovered error. The objective is to design tests that systematically uncover different classes of errors do so with a minimum amount of time effort. Secondary benefits include Demonstrate that Software functions appear to be working according to specification. That performance requirements appear to have been met. Data collected during testing provides a good indication of Software reliability some indication of Software quality. Testing cannot show the absence of defects, it can only show that Software defects are present. 1.4 Software Testing Its Relation with Software Life Cycle Software testing should be thought of as an integral part of the Software process an activity that must be carried out throughout the life cycle. Each phase in the Software lifecycle has a clearly different end product such as the Software requirements specification (SRS) documentation, program unit design program unit code. Each end product can be checked for conformance with a previous phase against the original requirements. Thus, errors can be detected at each phase of development. Validation Verification should occur throughout the Software lifecycle. Verification is the process of evaluating each phase end product to ensure consistency with the end product of the previous phase. Validation is the process of testing Software, or a specification, to ensure that it matches user requirements. Software testing is that part of validation verification associated with evaluating analysing program code. It is one of the two most expensive stages within the Software lifecycle, the other being maintenance. Software testing of a product begins after the development of the program units continues until the product is obsolete. Testing fixing can be done at any stage in the life cycle. However, the cost of finding fixing errors increases dramatically as development progresses. Changing a Requirements document during the first review is inexpensive. It costs more when requirements change after the code has been written: the code must be rewritten. Bug fixes are much cheaper when programmers find their own errors. Fixing an error before releasing a program is much cheaper than sending new disks, or even a technician to each customers site to fix it later. It is illustrated in Figure 1.1. The types of testing required during several phases of Software lifecycle are described below: Requirements Requirements must be reviewed with the client; rapid prototyping can refine requirements accommodate changing requirements. Specification The specifications document must be checked for feasibility, traceability, completeness, absence of contradictions ambiguities. Specification reviews (walkthroughs or inspections) are especially effective. Design Design reviews are similar to specification reviews, but more technical. The design must be checked for logic faults, interface faults, lack of exception handling, non-conformance to specifications. Implementation Code modules are informally tested by the programmer while they are being implemented (desk checking). Thereafter, formal testing of modules is done methodically by a testing team. This formal testing can include non-execution-based methods (code inspections walkthroughs) execution-based methods (black-box testing, white-box testing). Integration Integration testing is performed to ensure that the modules combine together correctly to achieve a product that meets its specifications. Particular care must be given to the interfaces between modules. The appropriate order of combination must be determined as top-down, bottom-up, or a combination thereof. Product Testing The functionality of the product as a whole is checked against its specifications. Test cases are derived directly from the specifications document. The product is also tested for robustness (error-handling capabilities stress tests). All source code documentation are checked for completeness consistency. Acceptance Testing The Software is delivered to the client, who tests the Software on the actual h/w, using actual data instead of test data. A product cannot be considered to satisfy its specifications until it has passed an acceptance test. Commercial off-the-shelf (or shrink-wrapped) Software usually undergoes alpha beta testing as a form of acceptance test. Maintenance Modified versions of the original product must be tested to ensure that changes have been correctly implemented. Also, the product must be tested against previous test cases to ensure that no inadvertent changes have been introduced. This latter consideration is termed regression testing. Software Process Management The Software process management plan must undergo scrutiny. It is especially important that cost duration estimates be checked thoroughly. If left unchecked, errors can propagate through the development lifecycle amplify in number cost. The cost of detecting fixing an error is well documented is known to be more costly as the system develops. An error found during the operation phase is the most costly to fix. 1.5 Principles of Software Testing Software testing is an extremely creative intellectually challenging task. The following are some important principles [DAV95] that should be kept in mind while carrying Software testing [PRE01] [SUM02]: Testing should be based on user requirements: This is in order to uncover any defects that might cause the program or system to fail to meet the clients requirements. Testing time resources are limited: Avoid redundant tests. It is impossible to test everything: Exhaustive tests of all possible scenarios are impossible, because of the many different variables affecting the system the number of paths a program flow might take. Use effective resources to test: This represents use of the most suitable tools, procedures individuals to conduct the tests. Only those tools should be used by the test team that they are confident familiar with. Testing procedures should be clearly defined. Testing personnel may be a technical group of people independent of the developers. Test planning should be done early: This is because test planning can begin independently of coding as soon as the client requirements are set. Test for invalid unexpected input conditions as well as valid conditions: The program should generate correct messages when an invalid test is encountered should generate correct results when the test is valid. The probability of the existence of more errors in a module or group of modules is directly proportional to the number of errors already found. Testing should begin at the module: The focus of testing should be concentrated on the smallest programming units first then expand to other parts of the system. Testing must be done by an independent party: Testing should not be performed by the person or team that developed the Software since they tend to defend the correctness of the program. Assign best personnel to the task: Because testing requires high creativity responsibility only the best personnel must be assigned to design, implement, analyze test cases, test data test results. Testing should not be planned under the implicit assumption that no errors will be found. Testing is the process of executing Software with the intention of finding errors. Keep Software static during test: The program must not be modified during the implementation of the set of designed test cases. Document test cases test results. Provide expected test results if possible: A necessary part of test documentation is the specification of expected results, even though it is impractical. 1.6 Software Testability Its Characteristics Testability is the ability of Software (or program) with which it can easily be tested [PRE01] [SUM02]. The following are some key characteristics of testability: The better it works, the more efficient is testing process. What you see is what you test (WYSIWYT). The better it is controlled, the more we can automate or optimize the testing process. By controlling the scope of testing we can isolate problems perform smarter retesting. The less there is to test, the more quickly we can test it. The fewer the changes, the fewer the disruptions to testing. The more information we have, the smarter we will test. 1.7 Stages in Software Testing Process Except for small programs, systems should not be tested as a single unit. Large systems are built out of sub-systems, which are built out of modules that are composed of procedures functions. The testing process should therefore proceed in stages where testing is carried out incrementally in conjunction with system implementation. The most widely used testing process consists of five stages that are illustrated in Table 1.1. Errors in program components, say may come to light at a later stage of the testing process. The process is therefore an iterative one with information being fed back from later stages to earlier parts of the process. The iterative testing process is illustrated in Figure 1.2 and described below: Unit Testing: Unit testing is code-oriented testing. Individual components are tested to ensure that they operate correctly. Each component is tested independently, without other system components. Module Testing: A module is a collection of dependent components such as an object class, an abstract data type or some looser collection of procedures functions. A module encapsulates related components so it can be tested without other system modules. Sub-system (Integration) Testing: This phase involves testing collections of modules, which have been integrated into sub-systems. It is a design-oriented testing is also known as integration testing. Sub-systems may be independently designed implemented. The most common problems, which arise in large Software systems, are sub-systems interface mismatches. The sub-system test process should therefore concentrate on the detection of interface errors by rigorously exercising these interfaces. System Testing: The sub-systems are integrated to make up the entire system. The testing process is concerned with finding errors that result from unanticipated interactions between sub-systems system components. It is also concerned with validating that the system meets its functional non-functional requirements. Acceptance Testing: This is the final stage in the testing process before the system is accepted for operational use. The system is tested with data supplied by the system client rather than simulated test data. Acceptance testing may reveal errors omissions in the systems requirements definition (user-oriented) because real data exercises the system in different ways from the test data. Acceptance testing may also reveal requirement problems where the system facilities do not really meet the users needs (functional) or the system performance (non-functional) is unacceptable. 1.8 The V-model of Testing To test an entire software system, tests on different levels are performed. The V model [FEW99], shown in figure 1.3, illustrates the hierarchy of tests usually performed in software development projects. The left part of the V represents the documentation of an application, which are the Requirement specification, the Functional specification, System design, the Unit design. Code is written to fulfill the requirements in these specifications, as illustrated in the bottom of the V. The right part of the V represents the test activities that are performed during development to ensure that an application corresponding to its requirements. Unit tests are used to test that all functions and methods in a module are working as intended. When the modules have been tested, they are combined and integration tests are used to test that they work together as a group. The unit- and integration test complement the system test. System testing is done on a complete system to validate that it corresponds to the system specification. A system test includes checking if all functional and all non-functional requirements have been met. Unit, integration and system tests are developer focused, while acceptance tests are customer focused. Acceptance testing checks that the system contains the functionality requested by the customer, in the Requirement specification. Customers are usually responsible for the acceptance tests since they are the only persons qualified to make the judgment of approval. The purpose of the acceptance tests is that after they are preformed, the customer knows which parts of the Requirement specification the system satisfies. 1.9 The Testing Techniques To perform these types of testing, there are three widely used testing techniques. The above said testing types are performed based on the following testing techniques: Black-Box testing technique Black box testing (Figure 1.4) is concerned only with testing the specification. It cannot guarantee that the complete specification has been implemented. Thus black box testing is testing against the specification and will discover faultsofomission, indicating that part of the specification has not been fulfilled. It is used for testing based solely on analysis of requirements (specification, user documentation). In Black box testing, test cases are designed using only the functional specification of the software i.e without any knowledge of the internal structure of the software. For this reason, black-box testing is also known as functional testing. Black box tests are performed to assess how well a program meets its requirements, looking for missing or incorrect functionality. Functional testing typically exercise code with valid or nearly valid input for which the expected output is known. This includes concepts such as boundary values. Performance tests evaluate response time, memory usage, throughput, device utilization, and execution time. Stress tests push the system to or beyond its specified limits to evaluate its robustness and error handling capabilities. Reliability tests monitor system response to represent user input, counting failures over time to measure or certify reliability. Black box Testing refers to analyzing a running program by probing it with various inputs. This kind of testing requires only a running program and does not make use of source code testing of any kind. In the security paradigm, malicious input can be supplied to the program in an effort to cause it to break. If the program breaks during a particular test, then a security problem may have been discovered. Black box testing is possible even without access to binary code. That is, a program can be tested remotely over a network. All that is required is a program running somewhere that is accepting input. If the tester can supply input that the program consumes (and can observe the effect of the test), then black box testing is possible. This is one reason that real attackers often resort to black box techniques. Black box testing is not an alternative to white box techniques. It is a complementary approach that is likely to uncover a different type of errors that the white box approaches. Black box testing tries to find errors in the following categories: Incorrect or missing functions Interface errors Errors in data structures or external database access Performance errors, and Initialization and termination errors. By applying black box approaches we produce a set of test cases that fulfill requirements: Test cases that reduce the number of test cases to achieve reasonable testing Test cases that tell us something about the presence or absence of classes of errors. The methodologies used for black box testing have been discussed below: 1.9.1.1 Equivalent Partitioning Equivalence partitioning is a black box testing approach that splits the input domain of a program into classes of data from which test cases can be produced. An ideal test case uncovers a class of errors that may otherwise before the error is detected. Equivalence partitioning tries to outline a test case that identifies classes of errors. Test case design for equivalent partitioning is founded on an evaluation of equivalence classes for an input condition [BEI95]. An equivalence class depicts a set of valid or invalid states for the input condition. Equivalence classes can be defined based on the following [PRE01]: If an input condition specifies a range, one valid and two invalid equivalence classes are defined. If an input condition needs a specific value, one valid and two invalid equivalence classes are defined. If an input condition specifies a member of a set, one valid and one invalid equivalence class is defined. If an input condition is Boolean, one valid and invalid class is outlined. 1.9.1.2 Boundary Value Analysis A great many errors happen at the boundaries of the input domain and for this reason boundary value analysis was developed. Boundary value analysis is test case design approach that complements equivalence partitioning. BVA produces test cases from the output domain also [MYE79]. Guidelines for BVA are close to those for equivalence partitioning [PRE01]: If an input condition specifies a range bounded by values a and b, test cases should be produced with values a and b, just above and just below a and b, respectively. If an input condition specifies various values, test cases should be produced to exercise the minimum and maximum numbers. Apply guidelines above to output conditions. If internal program data structures have prescribed boundaries, produce test cases to exercise that data structure at its boundary. White-Box testing technique White box testing (Figure 1.5) is testing against the implementation as it is based on analysis of internal logic (design, code etc.) and will discover faultsofcommission, indicating that part of the implementation is faulty. Designing white-box test cases requires thorough knowledge of the internal structure of software, and therefore the white-box testing is also called the structural testing. White box testing is performed to reveal problems with the internal structure of a program. A common goal of white-box testing is to ensure a test case exercises every path through a program. A fundamental strength that all white box testing strategies share is that the entire software implementation is taken into account during testing, which facilitates error detection even when the software specification is vague or incomplete. The effectiveness or thoroughness of white-box testing is commonly expressed in terms of test or code coverage metrics, which measure the fraction of code exercised by test cases. White box Testing involves analyzing and understanding source code. Sometimes only binary code is available, but if you decompile a binary to get source code and then study the code, this can be considered a kind of white box testing as well. White box testing is typically very effective in finding programming errors and implementation errors in software. In some cases this activity amounts to pattern matching and can even be automated with a static analyzer. White box testing is a test case design approach that employs the control architecture of the procedural design to produce test cases. Using white box testing approaches, the software engineering can produce test cases that: Guarantee that all independent paths in a module have been exercised at least once Exercise all logical decisions Execute all loops at their boundaries and in their operational bounds Exercise internal data structures to maintain their validity. There are several methodologies used for white box testing. We discuss some important ones below. 1.9.2.1 Statement Coverage The statement coverage methodology aims to design test cases so as to force the executions of every statement in a program at least once. The principal idea governing the statement coverage methodology is that unless a statement is executed, we have way of determining if an error existed in that statement. In other words, the statement coverage criterion [RAP85] is based on the observation that an error existing in one part of a program cannot be discovered if the part of the program containing the error and generating the failure is not executed. However, executed a statement once and that too for just one input value and observing that it behaves properly for that input value is no guarantee that it will behave correctly for all inputs. 1.9.2.2 Branch Coverage In branch coverage testing, test cases are designed such that the different branch conditions are given true and false values in turn. It is obvious that branch testing guarantees statement coverage and thus is a stronger testing criterion than the statement coverage testing [RAP85]. 1.9.2.3 Path Coverage The path coverage based testing strategy requires designing test cases such that all linearly independents paths in the program are executed at least once. A linearly independent path is defined in terms of the control flow graph (CFG) of the program. 1.9.2.4 Loop testing Loops are very important constructs for generally all the algorithms. Loop testing is a white box testing technique. It focuses exclusively on the validity of loop constructs. Simple loop, concatenated loop, nested loop, and unstructured loop are four different types of loops [BEI90] as shown in figure 1.6. Simple Loop: The following set of tests should be applied to simple loop where n is the maximum number of allowable passes thru the loop: Skip the loop entirely. Only one pass thru the loop. Two passes thru the loop. M passes thru the loop where m N-1, n, n+1 passes thru the loop. Nested Loop: Beizer [BEI90] approach to the nested loop Start at the innermost loop. Set all other loops to minimum value. Conduct the simple loop test for the innermost loop while holding the outer loops at their minimum iteration parameter value. Work outward, conducting tests for next loop, but keeping all other outer loops at minimum values and other nested loops to typical values. Continue until all loops have been tested. Concatenated loops: These can be tested using the approach of simple loops if each loop is independent of other. However, if the loop counter of loop 1 is used as the initial value for loop 2 then approach of nested loop is to be used. Unstructured loop: This class of loops should be redesigned to reflect the use of the structured programming constructs. 1.9.2.5 McCabes Cyclomatic Complexity The McCabes Cyclomatic Complexity [MCC76] of a program defines the number of independent paths in a program. Given a control flow Graph G of a program, the McCabes Cyclomatic Complexity V(G) can be computed as: V(G)=E-N+2 Where E is the number of edges in the control flow graph and N is the number of nodes of the control flow graph. The cyclomatic complexity value of a program defines the number of independent paths in the basis set of the program and provides a lower bound for the number of test cases that must be conducted to ensure that all statements have been executed at least once. Knowing the number of test cases required does not make it easy to derive the test cases, it only gives an indication of the minimum number of test cases required. The following is the sequences of steps that need to be undertaken for deriving the path coverage based test case of a program. Draw the CFG. Calculate Cyclomatic Complexity V(G). Calculate the basis set of linearly independent paths. Prepare a test case that will force execution of each path in the basis set. 1.9.2.6 Data Flow based Testing The data flow testing method chooses test paths of a program based on the locations of definitions and uses of variables in the program. Various data flow testing approaches have been examined [FRA88] [NTA88] [FRA93]. For data flow testing each statement in program is allocated a unique statement number and that each function does not alter its parameters or global variables. For a statement with S as its statement number, DEF(S) = {X| statement S contains a definition of X} USE(S) = {X| statement S contains a use of X} If statement S is if or loop statement, its DEF set is left empty and its USE set is founded on the condition of statement S. The definition of a variable X at statement S is live at statement S, if there exists a path from statement S to S which does not contain any condition of X. A definition-use chain (or DU chain) of variable X is of the type [X,S,S] where S and S are statement numbers, X is in DEF(S), USE(S), and the definition of X in statement S is live at statement S. One basic data flow testing strategy is that each DU chain be covered at least once. Data flow testing strategies are helpful for choosing test paths of a program including nested if and loop statements 1.9.3 Grey-Box testing technique Grey box testing [BIN99] designs test cases using both responsibility-based (black box) and implementation-based (white box) approaches. To completely test a web application one needs to combine the two approaches, White-box and Black-box testing. It is used for testing of Web based applications. The Gray-box testing approach takes into account all components ma Factors Affecting Web Applications Maintenance Factors Affecting Web Applications Maintenance Chapter 1 1.1 Introduction Software engineering [PRE01] is the process associated with industrial quality software development, the methods used to analyze, design test computer Software, the management techniques associated with the control monitoring of Software projects the tools used to support process, methods, techniques. In Software Development Life Cycle, the focus is on the activities like feasibility study, requirement analysis, design, coding, testing, maintenance. Feasibility study involves the issues like technical/economical/ behavioral feasibility of project. Requirement analysis [DAV93] emphasizes on identifying the needs of the system producing the Software Requirements Specification document (SRS), [JAL04] that describes all data, functional behavioral requirements, constraints, validation requirements for Software. Software Design is to plan a solution of the problem specified by the SRS document, a step in moving from the problem domain to the solution domain. The output of this phase is the design document. Coding is to translate the design of the system into code in a programming language. Testing is the process to detect defects minimize the risk associated with the residual defects. The activities carried out after the delivery of the software comprises the maintenance phase. 1.2 Evolution of Software Testing Discipline The effective functioning of modern systems depends on our ability to produce software in a cost-effective way. The term software engineering was first used at a 1968 NATO workshop in West Germany. It focused on the growing software crisis. Thus we see that the software crisis on quality, reliability, high costs etc. started way back when most of todays software testers were not even born. The attitude towards Software Testing [BEI90] underwent a major positive change in the recent years. In the 1950s when Machine languages were used, testing was nothing but debugging. When in the 1960s, compilers were developed, testing started to be considered a separate activity from debugging. In the 1970s when the software engineering concepts were introduced, software testing began to evolve as a technical discipline. Over the last two decades there has been an increased focus on better, faster and cost-effective software. Also there has been a growing interest in software safety, protection and security and hence an increased acceptance of testing as a technical discipline and also a career choice. Now to answer, What is Testing? we can go by the famous definition of Myers [MYE79], which says, Testing is the process of executing a program with the intent of finding errors. According to Humphrey, software testing is defined as, the execution of a program to find its faults. Testing is the process to prove that the software works correctly [PRA06]. Software testing is a crucial aspect of the software life cycle. In some form or the other it is present at each phase of (any) software development or maintenance model. The importance of software testing and its impact on software cannot be underestimated. Software testing is a fundamental component of software quality assurance and represents a review of specification, design and coding. The greater visibility of software systems and the cost associated with software failure are motivating factors for planning, through testing. It is not uncommon for a software organization to spend 40-50% of its effort on testing. During testing, the software engineering produces a series of test cases that are used to rip apart the software they have produced. Testing is the one step in the software process that can be seen by the developer as destructive instead of constructive. Software engineers are typically constructive people and testing requires them to overcome preconceived concepts of correctness and deal with conflicts when errors are identified. A successful test is one that finds a defect. This sounds simple enough, but there is much to consider when we want to do software testing. Besides finding faults, we may also be interested in testing performance, safety, fault-tolerance or security. Testing often becomes a question of economics. For projects of a large size, more testing will usually reveal more bugs. The question then becomes when to stop testing, and what is an acceptable level of bugs. This is the question of good enough software. Testing is the process of verifying that a product meets all requirements. A test is never complete. When testing software the goal should never be a product completely free from defects, because its impossible. According to Peter Nielsen, The average is 16 faults per 1000 lines of code when the programmer has tested his code and it is believed to be correct. When looking at a larger project, there are millions of lines of code, which makes it impossible to find all present faults. Far too often products are released on the market with poor quality. Errors are often uncovered by users, and in that stage the cost of removing errors is large in amount. 1.3 Objectives of Testing Glen Myers [MYE79] states a number of rules that can serve well as testing objectives: Testing is a process of executing a program with the intent of finding an error. A good test is one that has a high probability of finding an as yet undiscovered error. A successful test is one that uncovers an as yet undiscovered error. The objective is to design tests that systematically uncover different classes of errors do so with a minimum amount of time effort. Secondary benefits include Demonstrate that Software functions appear to be working according to specification. That performance requirements appear to have been met. Data collected during testing provides a good indication of Software reliability some indication of Software quality. Testing cannot show the absence of defects, it can only show that Software defects are present. 1.4 Software Testing Its Relation with Software Life Cycle Software testing should be thought of as an integral part of the Software process an activity that must be carried out throughout the life cycle. Each phase in the Software lifecycle has a clearly different end product such as the Software requirements specification (SRS) documentation, program unit design program unit code. Each end product can be checked for conformance with a previous phase against the original requirements. Thus, errors can be detected at each phase of development. Validation Verification should occur throughout the Software lifecycle. Verification is the process of evaluating each phase end product to ensure consistency with the end product of the previous phase. Validation is the process of testing Software, or a specification, to ensure that it matches user requirements. Software testing is that part of validation verification associated with evaluating analysing program code. It is one of the two most expensive stages within the Software lifecycle, the other being maintenance. Software testing of a product begins after the development of the program units continues until the product is obsolete. Testing fixing can be done at any stage in the life cycle. However, the cost of finding fixing errors increases dramatically as development progresses. Changing a Requirements document during the first review is inexpensive. It costs more when requirements change after the code has been written: the code must be rewritten. Bug fixes are much cheaper when programmers find their own errors. Fixing an error before releasing a program is much cheaper than sending new disks, or even a technician to each customers site to fix it later. It is illustrated in Figure 1.1. The types of testing required during several phases of Software lifecycle are described below: Requirements Requirements must be reviewed with the client; rapid prototyping can refine requirements accommodate changing requirements. Specification The specifications document must be checked for feasibility, traceability, completeness, absence of contradictions ambiguities. Specification reviews (walkthroughs or inspections) are especially effective. Design Design reviews are similar to specification reviews, but more technical. The design must be checked for logic faults, interface faults, lack of exception handling, non-conformance to specifications. Implementation Code modules are informally tested by the programmer while they are being implemented (desk checking). Thereafter, formal testing of modules is done methodically by a testing team. This formal testing can include non-execution-based methods (code inspections walkthroughs) execution-based methods (black-box testing, white-box testing). Integration Integration testing is performed to ensure that the modules combine together correctly to achieve a product that meets its specifications. Particular care must be given to the interfaces between modules. The appropriate order of combination must be determined as top-down, bottom-up, or a combination thereof. Product Testing The functionality of the product as a whole is checked against its specifications. Test cases are derived directly from the specifications document. The product is also tested for robustness (error-handling capabilities stress tests). All source code documentation are checked for completeness consistency. Acceptance Testing The Software is delivered to the client, who tests the Software on the actual h/w, using actual data instead of test data. A product cannot be considered to satisfy its specifications until it has passed an acceptance test. Commercial off-the-shelf (or shrink-wrapped) Software usually undergoes alpha beta testing as a form of acceptance test. Maintenance Modified versions of the original product must be tested to ensure that changes have been correctly implemented. Also, the product must be tested against previous test cases to ensure that no inadvertent changes have been introduced. This latter consideration is termed regression testing. Software Process Management The Software process management plan must undergo scrutiny. It is especially important that cost duration estimates be checked thoroughly. If left unchecked, errors can propagate through the development lifecycle amplify in number cost. The cost of detecting fixing an error is well documented is known to be more costly as the system develops. An error found during the operation phase is the most costly to fix. 1.5 Principles of Software Testing Software testing is an extremely creative intellectually challenging task. The following are some important principles [DAV95] that should be kept in mind while carrying Software testing [PRE01] [SUM02]: Testing should be based on user requirements: This is in order to uncover any defects that might cause the program or system to fail to meet the clients requirements. Testing time resources are limited: Avoid redundant tests. It is impossible to test everything: Exhaustive tests of all possible scenarios are impossible, because of the many different variables affecting the system the number of paths a program flow might take. Use effective resources to test: This represents use of the most suitable tools, procedures individuals to conduct the tests. Only those tools should be used by the test team that they are confident familiar with. Testing procedures should be clearly defined. Testing personnel may be a technical group of people independent of the developers. Test planning should be done early: This is because test planning can begin independently of coding as soon as the client requirements are set. Test for invalid unexpected input conditions as well as valid conditions: The program should generate correct messages when an invalid test is encountered should generate correct results when the test is valid. The probability of the existence of more errors in a module or group of modules is directly proportional to the number of errors already found. Testing should begin at the module: The focus of testing should be concentrated on the smallest programming units first then expand to other parts of the system. Testing must be done by an independent party: Testing should not be performed by the person or team that developed the Software since they tend to defend the correctness of the program. Assign best personnel to the task: Because testing requires high creativity responsibility only the best personnel must be assigned to design, implement, analyze test cases, test data test results. Testing should not be planned under the implicit assumption that no errors will be found. Testing is the process of executing Software with the intention of finding errors. Keep Software static during test: The program must not be modified during the implementation of the set of designed test cases. Document test cases test results. Provide expected test results if possible: A necessary part of test documentation is the specification of expected results, even though it is impractical. 1.6 Software Testability Its Characteristics Testability is the ability of Software (or program) with which it can easily be tested [PRE01] [SUM02]. The following are some key characteristics of testability: The better it works, the more efficient is testing process. What you see is what you test (WYSIWYT). The better it is controlled, the more we can automate or optimize the testing process. By controlling the scope of testing we can isolate problems perform smarter retesting. The less there is to test, the more quickly we can test it. The fewer the changes, the fewer the disruptions to testing. The more information we have, the smarter we will test. 1.7 Stages in Software Testing Process Except for small programs, systems should not be tested as a single unit. Large systems are built out of sub-systems, which are built out of modules that are composed of procedures functions. The testing process should therefore proceed in stages where testing is carried out incrementally in conjunction with system implementation. The most widely used testing process consists of five stages that are illustrated in Table 1.1. Errors in program components, say may come to light at a later stage of the testing process. The process is therefore an iterative one with information being fed back from later stages to earlier parts of the process. The iterative testing process is illustrated in Figure 1.2 and described below: Unit Testing: Unit testing is code-oriented testing. Individual components are tested to ensure that they operate correctly. Each component is tested independently, without other system components. Module Testing: A module is a collection of dependent components such as an object class, an abstract data type or some looser collection of procedures functions. A module encapsulates related components so it can be tested without other system modules. Sub-system (Integration) Testing: This phase involves testing collections of modules, which have been integrated into sub-systems. It is a design-oriented testing is also known as integration testing. Sub-systems may be independently designed implemented. The most common problems, which arise in large Software systems, are sub-systems interface mismatches. The sub-system test process should therefore concentrate on the detection of interface errors by rigorously exercising these interfaces. System Testing: The sub-systems are integrated to make up the entire system. The testing process is concerned with finding errors that result from unanticipated interactions between sub-systems system components. It is also concerned with validating that the system meets its functional non-functional requirements. Acceptance Testing: This is the final stage in the testing process before the system is accepted for operational use. The system is tested with data supplied by the system client rather than simulated test data. Acceptance testing may reveal errors omissions in the systems requirements definition (user-oriented) because real data exercises the system in different ways from the test data. Acceptance testing may also reveal requirement problems where the system facilities do not really meet the users needs (functional) or the system performance (non-functional) is unacceptable. 1.8 The V-model of Testing To test an entire software system, tests on different levels are performed. The V model [FEW99], shown in figure 1.3, illustrates the hierarchy of tests usually performed in software development projects. The left part of the V represents the documentation of an application, which are the Requirement specification, the Functional specification, System design, the Unit design. Code is written to fulfill the requirements in these specifications, as illustrated in the bottom of the V. The right part of the V represents the test activities that are performed during development to ensure that an application corresponding to its requirements. Unit tests are used to test that all functions and methods in a module are working as intended. When the modules have been tested, they are combined and integration tests are used to test that they work together as a group. The unit- and integration test complement the system test. System testing is done on a complete system to validate that it corresponds to the system specification. A system test includes checking if all functional and all non-functional requirements have been met. Unit, integration and system tests are developer focused, while acceptance tests are customer focused. Acceptance testing checks that the system contains the functionality requested by the customer, in the Requirement specification. Customers are usually responsible for the acceptance tests since they are the only persons qualified to make the judgment of approval. The purpose of the acceptance tests is that after they are preformed, the customer knows which parts of the Requirement specification the system satisfies. 1.9 The Testing Techniques To perform these types of testing, there are three widely used testing techniques. The above said testing types are performed based on the following testing techniques: Black-Box testing technique Black box testing (Figure 1.4) is concerned only with testing the specification. It cannot guarantee that the complete specification has been implemented. Thus black box testing is testing against the specification and will discover faultsofomission, indicating that part of the specification has not been fulfilled. It is used for testing based solely on analysis of requirements (specification, user documentation). In Black box testing, test cases are designed using only the functional specification of the software i.e without any knowledge of the internal structure of the software. For this reason, black-box testing is also known as functional testing. Black box tests are performed to assess how well a program meets its requirements, looking for missing or incorrect functionality. Functional testing typically exercise code with valid or nearly valid input for which the expected output is known. This includes concepts such as boundary values. Performance tests evaluate response time, memory usage, throughput, device utilization, and execution time. Stress tests push the system to or beyond its specified limits to evaluate its robustness and error handling capabilities. Reliability tests monitor system response to represent user input, counting failures over time to measure or certify reliability. Black box Testing refers to analyzing a running program by probing it with various inputs. This kind of testing requires only a running program and does not make use of source code testing of any kind. In the security paradigm, malicious input can be supplied to the program in an effort to cause it to break. If the program breaks during a particular test, then a security problem may have been discovered. Black box testing is possible even without access to binary code. That is, a program can be tested remotely over a network. All that is required is a program running somewhere that is accepting input. If the tester can supply input that the program consumes (and can observe the effect of the test), then black box testing is possible. This is one reason that real attackers often resort to black box techniques. Black box testing is not an alternative to white box techniques. It is a complementary approach that is likely to uncover a different type of errors that the white box approaches. Black box testing tries to find errors in the following categories: Incorrect or missing functions Interface errors Errors in data structures or external database access Performance errors, and Initialization and termination errors. By applying black box approaches we produce a set of test cases that fulfill requirements: Test cases that reduce the number of test cases to achieve reasonable testing Test cases that tell us something about the presence or absence of classes of errors. The methodologies used for black box testing have been discussed below: 1.9.1.1 Equivalent Partitioning Equivalence partitioning is a black box testing approach that splits the input domain of a program into classes of data from which test cases can be produced. An ideal test case uncovers a class of errors that may otherwise before the error is detected. Equivalence partitioning tries to outline a test case that identifies classes of errors. Test case design for equivalent partitioning is founded on an evaluation of equivalence classes for an input condition [BEI95]. An equivalence class depicts a set of valid or invalid states for the input condition. Equivalence classes can be defined based on the following [PRE01]: If an input condition specifies a range, one valid and two invalid equivalence classes are defined. If an input condition needs a specific value, one valid and two invalid equivalence classes are defined. If an input condition specifies a member of a set, one valid and one invalid equivalence class is defined. If an input condition is Boolean, one valid and invalid class is outlined. 1.9.1.2 Boundary Value Analysis A great many errors happen at the boundaries of the input domain and for this reason boundary value analysis was developed. Boundary value analysis is test case design approach that complements equivalence partitioning. BVA produces test cases from the output domain also [MYE79]. Guidelines for BVA are close to those for equivalence partitioning [PRE01]: If an input condition specifies a range bounded by values a and b, test cases should be produced with values a and b, just above and just below a and b, respectively. If an input condition specifies various values, test cases should be produced to exercise the minimum and maximum numbers. Apply guidelines above to output conditions. If internal program data structures have prescribed boundaries, produce test cases to exercise that data structure at its boundary. White-Box testing technique White box testing (Figure 1.5) is testing against the implementation as it is based on analysis of internal logic (design, code etc.) and will discover faultsofcommission, indicating that part of the implementation is faulty. Designing white-box test cases requires thorough knowledge of the internal structure of software, and therefore the white-box testing is also called the structural testing. White box testing is performed to reveal problems with the internal structure of a program. A common goal of white-box testing is to ensure a test case exercises every path through a program. A fundamental strength that all white box testing strategies share is that the entire software implementation is taken into account during testing, which facilitates error detection even when the software specification is vague or incomplete. The effectiveness or thoroughness of white-box testing is commonly expressed in terms of test or code coverage metrics, which measure the fraction of code exercised by test cases. White box Testing involves analyzing and understanding source code. Sometimes only binary code is available, but if you decompile a binary to get source code and then study the code, this can be considered a kind of white box testing as well. White box testing is typically very effective in finding programming errors and implementation errors in software. In some cases this activity amounts to pattern matching and can even be automated with a static analyzer. White box testing is a test case design approach that employs the control architecture of the procedural design to produce test cases. Using white box testing approaches, the software engineering can produce test cases that: Guarantee that all independent paths in a module have been exercised at least once Exercise all logical decisions Execute all loops at their boundaries and in their operational bounds Exercise internal data structures to maintain their validity. There are several methodologies used for white box testing. We discuss some important ones below. 1.9.2.1 Statement Coverage The statement coverage methodology aims to design test cases so as to force the executions of every statement in a program at least once. The principal idea governing the statement coverage methodology is that unless a statement is executed, we have way of determining if an error existed in that statement. In other words, the statement coverage criterion [RAP85] is based on the observation that an error existing in one part of a program cannot be discovered if the part of the program containing the error and generating the failure is not executed. However, executed a statement once and that too for just one input value and observing that it behaves properly for that input value is no guarantee that it will behave correctly for all inputs. 1.9.2.2 Branch Coverage In branch coverage testing, test cases are designed such that the different branch conditions are given true and false values in turn. It is obvious that branch testing guarantees statement coverage and thus is a stronger testing criterion than the statement coverage testing [RAP85]. 1.9.2.3 Path Coverage The path coverage based testing strategy requires designing test cases such that all linearly independents paths in the program are executed at least once. A linearly independent path is defined in terms of the control flow graph (CFG) of the program. 1.9.2.4 Loop testing Loops are very important constructs for generally all the algorithms. Loop testing is a white box testing technique. It focuses exclusively on the validity of loop constructs. Simple loop, concatenated loop, nested loop, and unstructured loop are four different types of loops [BEI90] as shown in figure 1.6. Simple Loop: The following set of tests should be applied to simple loop where n is the maximum number of allowable passes thru the loop: Skip the loop entirely. Only one pass thru the loop. Two passes thru the loop. M passes thru the loop where m N-1, n, n+1 passes thru the loop. Nested Loop: Beizer [BEI90] approach to the nested loop Start at the innermost loop. Set all other loops to minimum value. Conduct the simple loop test for the innermost loop while holding the outer loops at their minimum iteration parameter value. Work outward, conducting tests for next loop, but keeping all other outer loops at minimum values and other nested loops to typical values. Continue until all loops have been tested. Concatenated loops: These can be tested using the approach of simple loops if each loop is independent of other. However, if the loop counter of loop 1 is used as the initial value for loop 2 then approach of nested loop is to be used. Unstructured loop: This class of loops should be redesigned to reflect the use of the structured programming constructs. 1.9.2.5 McCabes Cyclomatic Complexity The McCabes Cyclomatic Complexity [MCC76] of a program defines the number of independent paths in a program. Given a control flow Graph G of a program, the McCabes Cyclomatic Complexity V(G) can be computed as: V(G)=E-N+2 Where E is the number of edges in the control flow graph and N is the number of nodes of the control flow graph. The cyclomatic complexity value of a program defines the number of independent paths in the basis set of the program and provides a lower bound for the number of test cases that must be conducted to ensure that all statements have been executed at least once. Knowing the number of test cases required does not make it easy to derive the test cases, it only gives an indication of the minimum number of test cases required. The following is the sequences of steps that need to be undertaken for deriving the path coverage based test case of a program. Draw the CFG. Calculate Cyclomatic Complexity V(G). Calculate the basis set of linearly independent paths. Prepare a test case that will force execution of each path in the basis set. 1.9.2.6 Data Flow based Testing The data flow testing method chooses test paths of a program based on the locations of definitions and uses of variables in the program. Various data flow testing approaches have been examined [FRA88] [NTA88] [FRA93]. For data flow testing each statement in program is allocated a unique statement number and that each function does not alter its parameters or global variables. For a statement with S as its statement number, DEF(S) = {X| statement S contains a definition of X} USE(S) = {X| statement S contains a use of X} If statement S is if or loop statement, its DEF set is left empty and its USE set is founded on the condition of statement S. The definition of a variable X at statement S is live at statement S, if there exists a path from statement S to S which does not contain any condition of X. A definition-use chain (or DU chain) of variable X is of the type [X,S,S] where S and S are statement numbers, X is in DEF(S), USE(S), and the definition of X in statement S is live at statement S. One basic data flow testing strategy is that each DU chain be covered at least once. Data flow testing strategies are helpful for choosing test paths of a program including nested if and loop statements 1.9.3 Grey-Box testing technique Grey box testing [BIN99] designs test cases using both responsibility-based (black box) and implementation-based (white box) approaches. To completely test a web application one needs to combine the two approaches, White-box and Black-box testing. It is used for testing of Web based applications. The Gray-box testing approach takes into account all components ma